Bilaam the magician

Summary: This essay argues that Balaam was originally a renowned pagan magician rather than a true prophet, and that God temporarily elevated him to genuine prophecy solely to proclaim Israel's destiny and demonstrate the futility of magic against God's will. It contrasts biblical prophecy with ancient Near Eastern magic, emphasizing that while magicians sought to manipulate divine powers through incantations and divination, the Torah insists that only God controls the future and that prophecy is granted solely by Him. The author further suggests that the episode of Balaam's talking donkey is best understood as satire or allegory rather than literal history, with every aspect of Balaam's mission being turned upside down: the curser becomes the blesser, the self-proclaimed seer is outshone by his donkey, and Israel's enemies end up hearing promises of Israel's enduring success. Balaam's seven prophecies are presented as a coherent progression describing Israel's unique covenant with God, immunity from magical curses, future military victories, enduring nationhood, and the downfall of those who oppose it, while reaffirming the Abrahamic promise that "those who bless you are blessed and those who curse you are accursed." The essay concludes that the enduring message of the Balaam narrative is not about magic itself but about God's ongoing protection of Israel, the permanence of the Jewish people, the certainty of divine promises, and the Torah's revolutionary vision of a hopeful future for humanity.

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The Israelites are encamped on the Plain of Moab before their entry into the Promised Land. Unbeknown to them, the elders of Midian and Balak, the king of Moab, are fearful about their presence and the potential threat this presents to them:

Moab was very frightened of the people, because it was many, and Moab was disgusted (וַיָּקָץ) (vayokotz) because of the Children of Israel (Numbers 22:3).

The Israelites had captured much of the arable land east of the Jordan River, extending from the Armon River opposite the Dead Sea to the current Golan Heights. This territory formerly belonged to Moab but had been taken over by Sihon, an Amorite king. Moab’s northern border was now only up to the Armon River.1

It could be argued that Moab had nothing to fear from the Israelites, since they had been explicitly commanded not to initiate any aggressive action against Moab because of their descent from Lot.2 Whether Moab knew about this directive is not stated in the text, and it could be that they did not. This might explain their considerable fear as the Israelites camped on their former territory.

The verb “vayokotoz” (disgusted) used by Moab is found only a few times in the Torah. It is found with respect to the multiplication of the Children of Israel in Egypt. Despite being oppressed by the Egyptians, the Israelites continued to multiply and the Egyptians were “disgusted.” (Exodus 1:12). Rebecca describes the Canaanite wives that Esau brought into the family in this way (Genesis 27:46). All these instances indicate an exasperation with the situation.

To the Moabites, the Israelites seem like “an ox that chews up the greenery of the field” (Numbers 22:3). Oxen completely chew the grass and nothing remains.3 Israel was too strong and numerous to be defeated in battle, but if they could somehow be weakened and/or reduced in number, Moab may be able to defeat it in battle.

Another point raised by Balak is that it is his understanding that this is a people “coming out of Egypt” (ibid 22:5). However, this is not completely correct, and this will be clarified later in the story.

The princes of Moab and Midian now call upon Bilaam, residing in Mesopotamia, to curse the Israelite people:

And he [Bilaam] said to them: "Lodge here tonight and I will bring you back word as YHWH will speak to me." And the princes of Moab stayed with Bilaam.” (Numbers 22:8) . . . And Elohim came to Bilaam and said: "Who are these men with you?" Bilaam said to Elohim: "Balak the son of Zipor, king of Moab sent to me [saying]. 'Behold! The people coming out of Egypt, it covers the eye of the land. Now go and curse it for me; perhaps I shall be able to make war against it and I shall drive it out.'" And Elohim said to Bilaam: "You shall not go with them! You shall not curse this people, for it is blessed!” (ibid 22:9-12).

Who is this Bilaam character? Is he a magician or a prophet?

Bilaam seems to have a relationship with God as befits a prophet. He is able to initiate conversations with God almost at will. When Balak’s emissaries come to him he turns immediately to YHVH. The next day, he admits that he is not a free agent and he cannot curse a blessed people because he is a follower of YHVH:

“If Balak would give me his household of silver and gold, I am unable to transgress the word of YHVH, my God (elokei), to do anything small or great” (ibid 22:18).

Possibly because of this, that there is a Rabbinic tradition that Bilaam was indeed a prophet. Thus, one finds in the Talmud the following statement:

Seven prophets prophesied for the nations of the world. These were Bilaam, and his father Job, Elifaz the Teimanite, Bildad the Shuchite, Tzofar the Na’amassite and Elihu son of Barachel the Buzite.4

Nevertheless, it is quite clear from the text that Bilaam is regarded as nothing but a “magician.” Approaching the end of his life, the Israelite leader Joshua acknowledges in a speech to the Israelites the mercies of God and mentions as an example that Bilaam the “magician” was slain:

And Bilaam the son of Beor, the magician (הַקּוֹסֵם) (hakosem), the children of Israel slew with the sword among the rest of their slain (Joshua 13:22).

Bilaam was recruited by Moab and Midian because of his international reputation as a master of the nefarious art of black magic. Hence, Balak sent messages to Bilaam saying:

“For I know [says Balak, king of Moab, about Bilaam] that whomever you bless is blessed and whomever you invoke a curse upon is accursed” (ibid 22:6).

To emphasize their expectations, his recruiters pointedly come to their initial meeting in Mesopotamia with tools of magic in their hands:

And the elders of Moab and the elders of Midian went with charms in their hand (וּקְסָמִים בְּיָדָם) (uksamim beyadom); and they came to Balaam, and spoke to him the words of Balak (ibid 22:7).

But look again at the initial quotation in this essay when the recruiters arrive at the home of Bilaam. Bilaam clearly knows the name of God YHWH, presumably because he needs this for his black magic. He may even have managed to persuade himself that he has a relationship with YHWH on the same level as the prophets Abraham and Moses. Yet this is not so. YHWH never directly answers him. The only aspect of God that answers him is Elohim. In fact, his first revelation of YHWH is via his donkey, when Bilaam, like his donkey, suddenly see a “angel of YHWH” in his path. It is a given throughout the Bible that all prophets of God have a relationship only with YHWH, the immanent aspect of God, and not with Elohim, the transcendent aspect of God.

But does not communication with any aspect of God signify that that individual has reached the level of a prophet? Hardly. There are numerous occasions in the Torah that God communicates with pagans. The Philistine Avimelech, king of Gerar, receives communications from God (Genesis 20:3), as does Laban (ibid 31:24). However, on all these instances, God speaks through His aspect of Elohim and they are one-time events.5 And none of these individuals recognize themselves as a prophet of God.

Even when told by God that he only has permission to say what He God puts in his mouth, Bilaam continues to use magic in an attempt to induce God to change His mind. Old habits are not easily changed. It is only prior to his third prophecy that Bilaam dispenses with magic:

And Bilaam saw that it was good in the eyes of YHVH to bless Israel, so he did not go as at the other time towards divinations (לִקְרַאת נְחָשִׁים) (likrat nechashim), but he set his face toward the wilderness (ibid 24:1).

Nachamanides points out that after the first two sacrifices Bilaam sets up when attempting to curse the camp of Israel, he seeks God and God “chances” upon him.6 This meeting with God is similar to that experienced by individuals not on a prophetic level. For example, the Torah says about Abimelech “And Elohim came to Abimelech” (Genesis 20:3), and about Laban “and Elohim came to Laban” (ibid 31:24). By contrast, before Bilaam’s third prophecy, a prophecy not accompanied by preliminary magic, the “spirit of God came upon him” (Numbers 24:2). This and his next prophecy constitute the pinnacle of Bilaam’s prophesying – and he is now truly a prophet of YHVH.

The view of Nachmanides would therefore seem most compatible with the plain meaning of the text. Bilaam was not previously a prophet of God but a magician but was elevated to the level of prophecy by God in order for him to prophecy about the Jewish people:

Then YHVH opened his eyes …. [after smiting his donkey].” From this we learn that Balaam was not a real prophet, but required an “uncovering of the eyes” in order to see an angel …. And as for that which he said “as YHVH shall speak to me...” (v8) [Balaam] called his knowledge of future events by divination “the speech of God.” However, in honor of Israel, God did come to him that night .... and at the end he rose to the prophetic level of “the vision of Shaddai.” [and hence as a true prophet of God].7

Moreover, a prophet of God requires a strong moral foundation and knowledge of what God requires of him. Maimonides regards prophecy as the highest stage of cleaving to God.8 For Maimonides, there can be no higher religious accomplishment than reaching a prophetic state. It is unthinkable that this villain could be a genuine prophet of God.

A further point. At their initial meeting, Bilaam reports his communication with God to the princes:

Elohim said to Bilaam: “You shall not go with them! You shall not curse this people, for it is blessed!” Bilaam arose in the morning and said to the princes of Balaak: “Go to your land, for YHWH refuses to allow me to go with you” (ibid 22;12-13).

Hence, Balak sends more numerous and prominent officers to Bilaam on the assumption that he wants more money. When they arrive at Bilaam’s home, he invites them to stay overnight “and I will know what YHWH will add in speaking to me” (ibid 22:19). But Bilaam has already been told that he cannot go with them or curse the Israelites! It can only be assumed from the fact that he did not immediately dismiss them, that Bilaam wanted God to change His mind. In fact, God did change his mind and Bilaam left with the princes of Moab, but this was not to accommodate Bilaam’s wishes.

At this stage in our discussion, it is helpful to elaborate on the place of magic in the ancient world at this time in history.

Magic and sorcery in the ancient world

Mesopotamians considered every aspect of nature to be controlled by the gods and nothing existed independently of them. As discussed in my essay on creation myths, the role of man was to serve the gods by working the earth (see the web page “The First Creation Account as a Polemic against its Mythological Counterparts.”) Thus, human labor was solely for their benefit.

The gods were rarely responsive to man. The notion that a person could have a personal relationship with a Deity was unknown in the ancient world. Because of this, magic in daily life in ancient Mesopotamia was pervasive and was used to ascertain reasons why the gods had brought on illness and misfortune, to divine the future, and to alleviate misfortune by altering these spiritual forces. Magicians were also present in temples and as counselors to kings.

One way of ascertaining the future was by omens. Since the gods controlled everything in nature, nature itself could provide hints as to its future course. Omens were sought in the entrails of sacrificial animals, in astrological events, by enquiring of the spirits of the dead (necromancy), in examining the smoke curling from sacrifices, and numerous other ways. It was also possible to influence the spiritual world by means of incantations, charms and magic objects.

Prophecy is usually regarded as an activity confined to the Jewish God. However, analysis of ancient texts reveals that this was not the case. Prophecy also existed in the pagan world and pagan prophets claimed to receive communications and visions from their gods at night as in the Bible. The Bible specifically warns about trusting in “false prophets” (Deuteronomy 18:17-22). These false prophets could have been prophets who practiced paganism and received messages from the multitude of pagan gods, or prophets who practiced monotheism but fabricated messages from YHVH. The dividing line between prophecy and magic was probably very fine, and magicians may have practiced both.

Archeologists have found cuneiform tablet in Mesopotamia with numerous standardized incantations. The specialists called upon to perform white magic for protecting people from harm were magicians.

A particularly vicious form of magic was black magic, in which a magician attempted to harm individuals or groups of individuals. This also was done by means of charms and incantations. No copies of black magic incantations exist today as they were almost certainly proprietary and probably regarded as extremely harmful. Bilaam was obviously regarded as a master of black magic.

The name of a deity would be important in black magic. Without this name, Bilaam would have been unable to penetrate into the spiritual world via magical incantations to curse the Israelites. It turns out that Bilaam did have knowledge of the tetragrammaton:

And he [Bilaam] said to them: “Lodge here tonight and I will bring you back word as YHVH will speak to me. And the princes of Moab stayed with Bilaam” (ibid 22:8).

The use of magic is strictly forbidden by the Torah. There can be only one source of knowledge of the future — and this is God. Magic negates His omnipotence:

When you come to the Land that YHVH your God gives to you, you shall not learn to act according to the abominations of those nations. There shall not be found among you one who causes his son or daughter to pass through the fire, one who practices divinations (קֹסֵםקְסָמִים) (kosem kesamim), an astrologer, one who reads omens (וּמְנַחֵשׁ) (umenaches), a sorcerer, or an animal charmer, one who enquires of Ov or Yidoni, or one who consults the dead. For anyone who does these is an abomination of YHVH. . . . For these nations that you are possessing — they hearken to astrologers and diviners (קֹסְמִים) (kosmim), but as for you — not so has YHVH your God given for you” (Deuteronomy 18:9-13).9

Bilaam and His donkey

This story contains one of the strangest episodes in the Torah – Bilaam conversing with his donkey after it began talking to him.

The Torah describes Elohim as being wrathful with Bilaam for proceeding on his journey with the princes (even though He had previously given him permission to go), and an “angel of YHVH” now stood on the road to obstruct him. The donkey saw the angel with his sword threateningly drawn in his hand, but Bilaam did not:

The angel of YHVH stood in the path of the vineyards, a fence on this side and a fence on that side. And the she-donkey saw the angel of YHVH ……” (Numbers 22:23)

The passageway was narrow and the donkey squeezed against the wall so as to avoid the angel, thereby pressing Balaam’s leg against the fence. Understandably, this infuriated Bilaam and he struck the donkey:

And YHVH opened the mouth of the she-donkey and she said to Bilaam: “What have I done to you that you have struck me these three times. Bilaam said to the she-donkey: Because you have mocked me. If there were a sword in my hand I would now have killed you . . . . “ Then YHVH uncovered Bilaam’s eyes and he saw the angel of YHVH standing on the road with his sword drawn in his hand. And he bowed his head and prostrated himself on his face (ibid 22:28-31).

Bilaam apologizes to the angel of God that he is going on this journey and offers to return home. Nevertheless, the angel gives him permission to continue although he is reminded again that he can only say words spoken to him by God.

Nachmanides suggests that God was angry with Bilaam not because he was going on this journey, since after all he had been given permission, but because he had not revealed all his conditions to the latest princes of Balak — namely that he could only say what God permitted him to say and that the Israelites are a blessed people. Moreover, by agreeing to accompany them without explanation, he could have given the impression that God had changed His mind and that his magic could be effective in cursing this people.10

How should one approach this episode of a talking donkey?

There are threads of Jewish tradition that accept this episode in a very literal way.

Mishnah Pirket Avoth states that the mouth of Bilaam’s ass was created on the eve of the first Sabbath.11

Nevertheless, this is hard to accept. A donkey does not possess vocal cords that can issue human-like sounds. The most it can do is make donkey-like sounds. Moreover, to speak sentences rather than just sounds, one needs a human brain.

Maimonides in his Guide to the Perplexed makes the very plausible suggestion that this part of the story was a prophetic vision, and many will find this a very acceptable explanation.12 However, he then goes on to say that whenever a human sees an angel this is in a prophetic vision or a dream. This would mean, for example, that when three angels appeared to Abraham and Sarah to announce Sarah’s future pregnancy this was not a real event. Many will find this suggestion difficult to accept. To commentators such as Nachmanides, the Torah’s description of Abraham entertaining his guests and the involvement of Sarah sounds far too realistic to be a vision.13

Is there anything in the text that would support Maimonides’ interpretation that this was a vision? There could be a number of indicators:

Prior to Bilaam’s journey, YHVH had been speaking with Bilaam during the night while he was asleep, and this episode with the donkey could be part of this vision.

During his altercation with his donkey, the representatives of Balak are not present and Bilaam remains alone except for his two young men. But would not the princes also have been blocked in their passage if they were accompanying Bilaam?

Bilaam shows no element of surprise when his donkey begins speaking to him, and he converses with the donkey as if this were an everyday occurrence!

Another suggestion is that this story is satire. Biblical satire can be recognized by the fact that the opposite of what was intended:

The magician Bilaam thinks he has the ability to change God’s will. This does not happen. Instead, his own will is changed.

Bilaam sets out wishing to curse the Israelites. Instead, he ends up blessing them.

Bilaam considers himself on a par with Moses and Abraham in his perception of YHVH, but discovers that he has less awareness of YHVH than his donkey.

Bilaam considers his pagan-type divinations as having the ability to portend the future and change it, but discovers that he can only foretell the future as a true prophet of God.

The people of Moab discover that not only are they unable to weaken the Israelites by magical cursing, but that the Israelites are a super-power and in the future they themselves will become the victim of Israel’s might.

The Israelites discover that whereas God helps them to overcome external forces, their own actions with the daughters of Moab will invite disaster.

It was previously discussed that there is a similar type of satirical story in the Torah, and this is the Tower of Bavel story (see the webpage “Satire in the Bible and the ziggurat of Babylon”). In this account, too, everything is turned around. The people said ". . . and let us make a name for ourselves" (Genesis 11:4). They did indeed make a name for themselves, but the name they made was far from the one intended: "Therefore its name was called Bavel [Babylon], because there YHWH confused the languages of the whole earth" (Genesis 11:9). Their purpose in building the city and its tower was ". . . . lest we be scattered over the face of the whole earth" (ibid 11:4). The result was: ". . . . and from there YHWH scattered them over the face of the whole earth" (ibid 11:9).

The Torah never asks its readers to believe the impossible. To the contrary, the very fact that a talking-donkey is impossible points to its allegorical nature. The same can be said about the talking snake in the Garden of Eden. It also was not meant to be taken literally.

But if this story is allegorical, we need to be sure that we have completely probed this story to its depths to ascertain its meaning.

At a basic level, the story is a polemic against magic. This had two purposes. One was to reassure the Israelites that black magic is impotent against them. The other was to warn the Israelites about they themselves practicing magic. The former reinforces the latter. If magic is ineffective, there is no reason to practice it. Pagan magicians are also ineffective in foretelling the future, since only God and his designated prophets possess this ability.

However, there is a lot more meaning than just this for us to probe.

The seven prophecies of Bilaam

Rav Samet quoting Professor Yair Zakovitch notes that a three-four model is not unusual in the Torah. Typically, there are three repetitions but no movement. By the fourth repetition, a major change occurs that reaches a climax.14,15 With this format, the Bible is making the point that when something occurs in exactly the same way on three occasions it is not by chance. Thus, it is now up to Bilaam to recognize that after three prophecies of blessing, God’s only intent is to bless Israel and none of his magic will change this.

At first glance, the fourth prophecy seems to be a single prophecy, but in actuality it is made up of four short prophecies ‑ making a total of seven prophesies in all.16 As for the previous three prophecies, each unit of the fourth prophecy is proceeded by the phrase “he took up his parable” ( וַיִּשָּׂא מְשָׁלוֹ ) (vayisa mishelo).

Bilaam attempts to magically penetrate the realm of spirits with seven sacrifices. God reverses Bilaam’s intent, and he now utters seven prophecies that are nothing but the words of YHWH. God further places His imprint on these prophecies with number 7.

The first prophecy reads as follows:

He took up his parable and said: “From Aram, Balak, king of Moab, led me from the mountains of the east. Come curse Jacob for me, come bring anger upon Israel. How can I curse, whom El has not cursed, and how can I execrate whom YHVH has not execrated? For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills I behold him. Behold, it is a people that shall dwell alone and not be reckoned among the nations. Who has counted the dust of Jacob, or numbered the stock of Israel? Let me die the death of the righteous, and may my end be like his!” (Numbers 23:7-10).

In this introductory prophecy, Bilaam recounts the recent activities of Balak and why he, Bilaam, is unable to accommodate Balak’s request to curse the Israelites:

God does not wish the Israelites to be cursed.
This is a unique people.
This is a numerous people.
There is reason to be envious of this people.

Much commentary has been expended on the sentence “Behold, it is a people that shall dwell alone and not be reckoned among the nations” (ibid 23:9).17 Nevertheless, one need go no further than Moses’ words in the Book of Deuteronomy to explicate this verse:

For which is a great nation that has a God who is close to it like YHVH our God whenever we call to Him? And which is a great nation that has righteous decrees and ordinances such as this entire Torah which I place before you this day (Deuteronomy 4:8-9).

There is a relationship between God and the people of Israel through His Covenant, and this creates a bond between them. This being the case, why would God wish to break this bond?

Despite this, Balak and Bilaam are not prepared to abandon their mission. They yet again find a high place from where they can direct their malice, and again prepare seven altars and offer a bull and ram on each.

Bilaam continues to prophecy:

“God is not a man that He should lie, nor a human being that He should relent. If He has spoken, then shall He not fulfill? If He has spoken then shall He not do? Behold! I am bidden to bless, and He has blessed and I cannot turn it back. He has seen no iniquity in Jacob and seen no perversity in Israel. YHVH his God is with him, and the trumpet blast of the King is in his midst. God who brought them out of Egypt according to the power of His loftiness. For there is no divination in Jacob and no sorcery with Israel. Like this time it will be said to Jacob and Israel: “'What has God wrought!” Behold the people will arise like a lion cub, and raise itself like lion; it will not lie down until it consumes its prey and drinks the blood of the slain” (Numbers 23:19-24).

Bilaam has raised the following important points in this second prophecy:

Bilaam has been asked to reverse God’s promises to Israel through magic, but this is impossible since God does not change His mind.

God’s blessing of Israel is immutable, and God cannot be made to change His mind.

Israel is immune from threats from magic. Nor does the Jewish people practice magic.

Israel is destined to conquer the Land through their military might.

Bilaam/God also corrects a misconception held by Balak — the Israelites are not a people that is “coming out of Egypt,” (ibid 22: 5), but rather a people “brought out of Egypt (ibid 24:8). The difference is crucial. God brought out the Children of Egypt from Egypt and has a vested interest in their fate. The Israelites are also obligated to God for His taking them out, and Israel has made God their king.

In their initial conversation with the elders of Midian, Moab describes Israel as a feeding ox (ibid 22:4). This is a poor analogy. Israel is not an herbivorous ox but a carnivorous lion that will consume its prey in its battles with the Canaanites. In practical terms, this means that Balak has no chance of defeating them. Nor for that matter does any other power in Canaan with whom they will engage in battle (at least initially).

Nevertheless, within this prophecy, an entrance is provided to Bilaam regarding a potential source of weakness in Israel. Bilaam/God states that there is “no iniquity in Jacob” or “perversity in Israel” (ibid 23:21). This does raise the possibility that if there were iniquity or perversity in Israel, then God may be induced to change His mind. External spiritual forces cannot adversely influence Israel — but their own moral actions can.18

After repeating the sacrifices on seven altars and hearing that “there is no divination in Jacob and no sorcery with Israel” (ibid 22:23), Bilaam finally comes to the appreciation that God’s will cannot be bent. So, he “did not go as every other time towards divinations, and he set his face towards the wilderness” (ibid 24:1). For the first time he is able to see the entire Israelite camp and now for the first time “the spirit of Elohim” comes upon him. As happened in the episode of the donkey he sees a vision of God with “uncovered eyes” (Numbers 24:4):

“The words of Bilaam, son of Be’or, the words of the man with the open eye. The words of the man who hears the sayings of God, who sees the vision of Shadai while fallen and with uncovered eyes. How goodly are your tents, O Jacob, your dwelling places, O Israel! Stretched out like brooks, as gardens by the riverside; as aloes planted by God, like cedars by water. Water shall flow from his wells, and his seed shall be by abundant waters. His king shall be exalted over Agag, and his kingdom shall be upraised. It is God who brought him out of Egypt according to the power of His loftiness. He shall consume the nations that are his adversaries and crush their bones, and his arrows shall pierce them. He crouched and lay down like a lion, and as a lion cub who shall rouse him up? Those who bless you are blessed and those who curse you are accursed” (ibid 24:4-9)

Bilaam is using a new designation for God – Shadai. As discussed in the essay “The Covenant of Circumcision — an eternal, fertile nation,” this name of God has the connotation of fertility. This prophecy is also full of the word “water,” a word which is also synonymous with fertility. Looking at Israel’s tents in the Plain of Moab, Bilaam imagines Israelite settlement spread throughout the Land of Israel. Balak wishes to diminish this people in number by cursing them — but this will not happen.

Commentators are puzzled by mention of the name of the Amalekite king Agag, since his name does not appear in the Bible until the time of the monarchy.34 Moreover, if this sentence is indeed speaking about a monarch whose “kingdom shall be upraised” by defeating Agag, then this part of the prophesy is talking about the time of Saul, since he was the king who defeated the Amalekites on the instructions of the prophet Samuel (although he did not complete the prophet’s instructions).19 On the other hand, the next part of the verse seems more focused on David, since he is the king whose “kingdom will be upraised (מַלְכֻתוֹv וְתִנַּשֵּׂא) (vesinasei malchuto).” Interestingly, a verse in Samuel II describing the kingdom of David uses these very same words:

David realized that YHVH had established him as king over Israel and that He had raised up his kingdom (נִשֵּׂא מַמְלַכְתּוֹ) (nisei mamluchto) for the sake of His people Israel (II Samuel 5:12).

Another possibility is that this is the family name for all the kings of Amalek. In the book of Esther, Hamann is called an Agagite (Esther 3:1). It may be that Haman was not directly descended from the king Agag who was executed by Samuel but from other members of the same family.

Finally, Bilaam and Balak learn about a notion first communicated to Abraham – “Those who bless you are blessed and those who curse you are accursed.”20

Bilaam has done nothing but praise the Israelites and prophesize their success in the land of Canaan. Three blessings have been issued. A pattern has been established. This is beyond chance. Bilaam is fired. Nevertheless, without being requested, he continues to convey the words of God in four further prophecies:

(4). He took up his parable and said: The words of Bilaam son of Be’or, the words of the one with the open eye. The words of one who hears the sayings of God and knows the mind of the Supreme One, who sees the vision of Shadai, fallen down, yet with uncovered eyes. I see him, but not now; I behold him, but it is not near; a star short forth from Jacob, and a staff shall rise from Israel, and he shall strike down the corners of Moab, and undermine all the children of Seth. And Edom shall be a conquest, and Seir shall the conquest of his enemies – and Israel will attain success. One from Jacob shall have dominion, and destroy the remnant from the city.

(5). And he looked on Amalek, and took up his parable, and said: Amalek is the first among nations; but its end is eternal destruction.

(6). And he looked on the Kenite and took up his parable and said: Strong is your dwelling-place, and set in a rock is your nest. For if the Kenite should be laid waste, till when can Assyria take you captive?

(7). And he took up his parable, and said: Oh, who will survive when He imposes these? But ships shall come from the realm of Kittim, and they will afflict Asshur, and afflict Eber, and it too will be forever destroyed.” (Numbers 24:16-24)

It is not my intention to explicate every one of these prophecies. However, a number of important points can be made. Firstly, these prophecies continue the Torah’s polemic against magic. In the pagan world there were prophets who foretold the future using magic, either in visions during the night or through omens. However, Bilaam has already been told that “there is no divination in Jacob and no sorcery with Israel” (ibid 23:23). This means that only true prophets of God can foretell the future. At this moment in time, Bilaam becomes a true prophet of God and attains the ability to accurately foretell the future.

All the seven prophecies made by Bilaam fit into a sequence. His very first prophecy talks about this people having a relationship with God. The second that God will not change His mind and that Israel has the ability to conquer Canaan. The third that the Israelites will be fruitful in their land. The fourth that the kingdom of Israel will be upraised, and the fifth that their chief enemy, the Amalekites, will be defeated.

But what period of time is this fourth unit of these last three further prophecies (numbers five to seven) talking about? A related question. What does the Torah mean when Bilaam says “Come, I shall advise you what this people will do to your people in the End of Days” (בְּאַחֲרִית הַיָּמִים) (be’acharit hayomim) (ibid 24:14)? When is this “End of Days”?

Nachmanides suggests this will be the messianic era.21 This fits well into the flow of these seven prophecies. The time of the monarchy has just been discussed in the third prophecy – “His king shall be exalted over Agag and his kingdom shall be upraised” (ibid 24:7). This latter group of prophecies now takes events one step further. In his commentary, Nachmanides follows Rashi and Onkelos in identifying the “Kittim” as Rome.22 This fits in well with the Rabbinic notion that Rome will be the final empire to be overcome in the messianic era.23 Since the Christian church took over the Roman Empire, this current exile has been identified in Jewish tradition as the continuing exile of Rome.

However, there are a number of problems with this interpretation.24 The phrase “be’acharit hayomim” (בְּאַחֲרִית הַיָּמִים) does not necessarily mean the end of days, but can also be an idiom for “in the future.” For example, Jacob calls his sons to his deathbed and tells them what will happen to them “at the end of days” (Genesis 49:1). His prophecies describe how the Israelite tribes will settle in the land of Canaan. Also in Deuteronomy, Moses speaks about the Jewish people doing repentance in exile “at the end of days” (Deuteronomy 4:30). His intent would seem to be a more foreseeable future than a messianic one.

There are other reasons, too, why this prophecy may not be speaking about messianic times. At the time of the exile of the northern tribes by the Assyrians, their king Shalmaneser mixed up the nations by transplanting their inhabitants from one land to another (2 Kings 17). In this way, he assured himself of a docile empire without fear of revolt. As a result of this and later historical events, the Moabites and Edomites ceased to exist as nations. It is no longer possible today to “strike down the corners of Moab” i.e., to destroy the far settlements of Moab. More likely, therefore, is that the Torah is again talking about David, the “star shot forth from Jacob,” (Numbers 24:17) who did devastate Moab.25

It is also by no means clear that the “Kittim” mentioned here should be identified with Rome. In Genesis, the Kittim are identified as a Greek nation, and the Torah may well be describing the subjugation of the Assyrians by the Greek empire.26 Under Alexander the Great, the Greeks defeated the Persians and took over the entire Near East and beyond.

Nevertheless, it is doubtful that the intent of these four prophecies is to provide a detailed review of future world history, but rather to emphasize that those empires that afflict Israel will be destroyed, while those who align themselves with the Jewish nation, such as the Kenites, will survive.27 In other words, those who bless the Jewish people will be blessed while those who curse it will be cursed. Not explicitly stated, but very much implied, is that the Jewish nation will outlive all these people as an eternal nation.

Thematically, this could be the end of this story. Bilaam has been dismissed by Balak, and Bilaam has completed seven prophecies foreseeing a glorious future for the Israelites in their promised land. But in the Torah scroll this is not the end. A Torah section always ends with letter spaces. In this instance, this story continues for another eight sentences up to the letter breaks as Israel begins committing harlotry with the daughters of Moab. The Israelites are invited to the feasts of their gods and begin bowing down to their gods. Bilaam has not given up on his scheming. Following his military campaign with the Midianites, Moses said to the people:

Did you let every female live? See now, they were the ones who caused the Children of Israel by the word of Bilaam to commit a trespass against YHVH regarding the matter of Pe’or; and the plague occurred in the assembly of YHVH (Numbers 31:15-16).

It transpires that after his prophecies, Bilaam advises Balak and the Midianites how to overcome the Israelites. But Bilaam should have remembered what he himself said — those who curse Israel will be cursed. In effect, he had prophesized his own demise. As mentioned at the beginning of this essay:

And Bilaam the son of Beor, the magician (הַקּוֹסֵם) (hakosem), the children of Israel slew with the sword among the rest of their slain (Joshua 13:22).

Concluding ideas

One could well say that a story about a magician and his sorcery has little relevance nowadays. But this is far from being the case. This is a highly relevant story and one that has had and continues to have considerable influence on the Jewish people.

The Talmud discusses that the passage about Bilaam as well as the book of Job were written by the hand of Moses.28 A question that can be asked is why the Talmud would even mention this information about the story of Bilaam since it is Jewish belief that all the Torah was written by Moses under the direction of God? One answer must be that Moses and the Israelites were unaware of any of the dealings between Balak and Bilaam. Another, is that this passage contains prophesies of Bilaam that are not directly related to Moses or his Torah. There would have been good reasons, therefore, for Moses not to have recorded this passage in the Torah. Nevertheless, Moses did write this section under the direction of God and it was included in the Torah, because the messages it contains were so important.

These include the following:

God is not just “a Man of war” (Exodus 15:3) but is on full-time duty protecting the Jewish people from the barbs thrust against them.

In ancient times, magic was thought by many to be a potent force. Nowadays, also, Israel has many threats against it. The message of this story is that God will also protect the Jewish people against these too.

With God’s help, this people are destined to become a powerful nation.

The Jewish people were never a militaristic nation. Nevertheless, when required, they will achieve military might.

The Jewish people will continue to eternity.

The promise that the Jewish people are to be an eternal people was first made to Abraham at the Covenant of Circumcision (Genesis 17:13).5 Now this promise is repeated in prophetic form. Its adversaries will rise and fall – but the Jewish nation will continue forever.

In our generation we are privileged to be able to view the spectrum of world history. The great empires of the past — the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans - are no more, while the Israelite nation continues to thrive in the same country, with the same culture, and holding the same religious ideas formulated almost 3,500 years ago when Moses brought to the Jewish people a Covenant and Ten Commandments sealed in stone by God Himself. Stone is the closest one can come in this universe to eternity.

The present for the Jewish people has not always been bright. Nevertheless, there exists the notion that a glorious future is yet ahead.

It cannot be emphasized enough how novel this idea was when first introduced by the Torah. Mesopotamian civilization throughout its thousands of years of existence did not look to the future. Man was placed on this earth to serve the gods and man’s lot was to make the best of whatever fate brought him. He could offer sacrifices and pray to the gods, but it was unlikely they would respond. He could try to improve his lot by means of magic, but this also was shooting into the dark. Even death was a descent into a dismal pit.29 No wonder then that historians think of Mesopotamian society as one that was existentially depressed.

By contrast, Judaism has always looked with anticipation to the future, and this powerful idea provided hope to the Jewish people through the darkest moments of exile and oppression. In times of extreme difficulty, it could almost be said that the Jewish people lived for the future.

This Jewish idea — that the future can be better than the present — has provided the dynamism for western civilization and its continuing technological and social progress. Progress can only happen when people look forward. The Bible invented looking forward and this idea was later taken up by the other monotheistic faiths.

From this futuristic thinking came the idea from the prophets of Israel that a messianic person, specifically a descendant of the House of David, would bring about a religious renewal, fight the wars of God, gather the dispersed of Israel, and rebuild the Holy Temple (2 Samuel 7:13).30 The fourth prophecy of Bilaam is often taken as the Torah source for this idea — “A star shall go forth from Jacob and a staff shall arise in Israel” (Numbers 24:17).49

But is this verse really talking about a Messiah?

At discussed already, it may be that a “A star shall go forth from Jacob” is not a messianic figure, but a person who has already been on the world stage – King David.

Nevertheless, Maimonides in his Mishneh Torah was not prepared to undermine the Rabbinic notion of a Messiah and its Toritic support from this section. He therefore proposed that Bilaam’s prophecy be understood at two levels. On one level it was referring to King David. On another, it was foretelling the arrival of a Messiah:

“I see him, but not now” — this refers to David: “I perceive him, but not in the near future” — this refers to the Messianic King. “A star shall go forth from Jacob” — this refers to David. “And a staff shall arise in Israel” – this refers to the Messianic King, “and he shall strike down the corners of Moab” — this refers to David, as it is related (II Samuel 8;2) “He smote Moab and measured them with a line.” “Dominating all of Seth’s descendants” — this refers to the Messianic king whom Zecharia 9:10) prophesies: “He will rule from sea to sea. “Edom will be demolished — this refers to David as (II Samuel 8:6) states “Edom became the servants of David.” (Seir) will be destroyed – this refers to the Messianic King, as (Obadiah 1:21) prophesies: “Saviors will ascend Mount Zion [to judge the mountain of Esau).”50

In sum, the story of Bilaam is not a fairytale. It is a story containing highly important themes. Its main thrust as a polemic against magic and sorcery is not particularly relevant today. But its other aspects certainly are.

References