Satire in the Bible and the ziggurat of Babylon

Note how the literary structure of the story builds the satire:

 

Each man said: "Come, let us make bricks. . . " (ibid 11:3)

 

 

YKVK said: "Come, let us go down. . . " (ibid 11:7)

 

The people said: "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens" (ibid 11:4)

 

They built up to the heavens. God’s response was: "And YKVK came down to look at the city and tower which the sons of man were building" (ibid 11:5)

 

They said ". . . and let us make a name for ourselves" (ibid 11:4).

 

They did indeed make a name for themselves, but this name was far from the one they intended:

 

Therefore its name was called Bavel (Babylon), because there YKVK confused the languages of the whole earth (Genesis 11:9).

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Their purpose in building the city and its tower was ". . . . lest we be scattered over the face of the whole earth" (ibid 11:4).

 

And the result was:

 

". . . . and from there YKVK scattered them over the face of the whole earth" (ibid 11:9)

 

The words "come let us go down. . . " do constitute a theological issue since it is by no means clear whom God is addressing. Most exegetes assume He is addressing the heavenly hosts, such as angels, although there is no mention in the Bible prior to this verse that God keeps such company.

 

This is, of course, not the first time God has expressed his intentions in the plural. In Genesis I, God said

Let us make man in Our image" (Genesis 1:26). Cassuto suggests that the Torah uses the royal we as a form of exhortation. "When a person exhorts himself to do a given task, he uses the plural: Let us go! Let us rise up!"2

 

What does it mean that YKVK "came down"? Is not God everywhere? And why is it that specifically YKVK came down and not Elokim? God coming down appears to be a Biblical idiom. Hence, when YKVK speaks to Moses at the burning bush, He says: “I shall descend to rescue it (i.e., My people] from the hand of Egypt and to bring it up from that land to a good and spacious land” (Exodus 3:8). To “come down” means to descend from His heavenly spiritual realm and to become intimately involved in the affairs of man, particularly from a moral perspective. Intimate involvement throughout the Torah is always represented by the immanent aspect of God YKVK and not Elokim.3

 

Moreover, the people are about to build the tallest and most impressive tower in Mesopotamia, a tower that reaches up into the heavens. However, from God’s perspective they are accomplishing nothing, and God has to “come down” from the heavens to view their futile attempts.

 

The word "bavel" in Hebrew has two meanings — the city of Babylon, which was then the capital of southern Mesopotamia, and the word confusion or babble. The Generation of the Dispersion imagined that their city and its tower would establish their reputation throughout the world, but in reality, all they created was a city of babble.

The geography and religion of ancient Mesopotamia

 

To understand what the Bible is poking fun at, it is helpful to review some geographical and religious aspects of ancient Mesopotamia.

Southern Mesopotamia is an extremely large plain bounded to the east by the Zagreb Mountains and to the west by desert; and this is where urban civilization began between about 3,000 to 3,500 BCE. It is a semi-arid country suitable for grazing. There are no forests that can be used for timber and its geology is not suitable for quarrying. Water for agriculture was obtained from the Euphrates River and was led by channels into the fertile alluvial soil of the desert. By this time, agriculture had become sufficiently advanced to sustain large centers of population in cities such as Uruch, which is named Erech in the Bible and which was the first major city in southern Mesopotamia, and Ur, the birthplace of Abraham.

 

The first people to live in this area were the Sumerians. It is unclear where this civilization originated from. The area in which they lived was known as Sumar (hence the name Sumerians), and this may be the same name as "plain in the land of Shinar" (Genesis 11:2) of the Tower of Babel story.

One of the major innovations of the Mesopotamian world, together with the discovery of the wheel and writing, was the manufacture of clay bricks. The bricks were dried in the sun during the non-rainy season or baked in kilns and they constituted the basic building material for Mesopotamia.

The focal point of a Mesopotamian city was its temple. The name Babylon is thought to mean “gateway to the god.” The spirit of a god was infused into an idol and from his temple the god worked, rested and protected the city. In return, the inhabitants of the city venerated it, clothed it, and fed it with sacrifices.
The ziggurat was a common feature of Mesopotamian cities and about 30 are known. They were large impressive tower-like structures that would have been visible from a distance. On their top story was the temple to a god.

Babylon was the capital of southern Mesopotamia from the time of Sargon of Akkad, who lived between about 2270 to 2215 BCE. The first ziggurat in Babylon may well have been built during his reign, although this is speculative. During the much-later reign of Nebuchadnezzar (about 605 to 562 BCE) the ziggurat in Babylon was the tallest structure in Mesopotamia. Its base was about 300 feet and it was seven stories tall or about 300 feet in height. It was made of brick, the exterior bricks being baked in furnaces, while those in the interior were baked by the sun. On its top story was the temple of the god Marduk.

 

The gods lived in the heavens, and the multistoried ziggurat was an attempt to bring the gods into the confines of the city. The temple complex of the ziggurat in Babylon was called Etemenanki or "the house of the foundation of heaven and earth." The temple on the top of the ziggurat on its seventh story was the Esagila, literally "the house whose head is lifted up." It is interesting that the biblical description of the construction of the Tower of Babel uses very similar words: "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top (literally its head) in the heavens" (Genesis 11:4).

 

Much of what we know about the ziggurat of Babylon comes from the time of Nebuchadnezzar. Before he rebuilt it, this ziggurat had probably been in ruins for hundreds of years. This is the same Nebuchadnezzar who destroyed the First Temple and exiled the population of Judah to Mesopotamia.

 

It is likely that when the Bible was written at the time of Moses, the Etemenanki was in ruins. Hence, the Bible was describing historically the time of Sargon or thereabouts. (The date of the Exodus and the Giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai is controversial, but was probably in 1446 BCE (see my article on this website: The Historicity of the Israelite Exile in Egypt: A Defense of a 15th Century BCE Exodus ). Babylon was sacked by the Hittites in 1954 BCE, and the city was not restored to its former glory until the reign of Nebuchadnezzar in 612 BCE.

The following sentence also has a satirical element: "And the brick served them as stone, and the bitumen served them as mortar".

 

It is written from the perspective of the Land of Israel where stone is the basic building material and it is poking fun at the impermanence of brick ziggurats. Stones and mortar have permanence. Bricks fall down and rapidly create ruins.

 

The "sons of man" in this sentence is a strange expression for the Bible: “And YKVK descended to look at the city and tower which the sons of man built” (ibid 11:5). This may also be another dig at Mesopotamian tradition. According to their mythology, the Etemenanki was built by the gods at the beginning of time and mortal rulers did no more than continue the project.

 

The following is how the construction of Babylon and its Esagila are described in the Epic of Creation myth. Marduk had defeated a coalition of older gods and it was now time for the younger gods he had rescued to demonstrate their appreciation:

The Anunnaki made their voices heard
And addressed Marduk their lord,
Now, o lord, that you have set us free,
What are our favors from you?
We would like to make a shrine with its own name
We would like our nights resting place to be in your private quarters, and to rest there.
Let us found a shrine, a sanctuary there.
When we arrive, let us rest within it.
When Marduk heard this,
His face lit up greatly, like daylight.
Create Babylon, whose construction you requested!
Let its mud bricks be molded, and build high the shrine!
The Anunnaki began shoveling.
For a whole year they made bricks for it.
When the second year arrived,
They had raised the top of Esagila in front of (?) the Apsu
They had built a high ziggurrat for the Apsu.4

 

There is also irony in the city name Babylon. As mentioned, this is thought to mean "the gate of the god" (in Hebrew: bavel). However, to the Israelites this city was not a gate to any god but rather a multi-lingual babbling city of confusion.

 

Note another subtle wordplay in the story. The word (bricks) (in Hebrew: levanim) when reversed becomes "we shall confuse" (In Hebrew navla). This was a city that was destined from its beginnings to be confusing.

The error of the Generation of the Dispersion

 

What was this generation’s error that warranted its dispersion? The text is not clear at all on this question, and the ambiguity has spawned numerous Rabbinic and modern interpretations. We shall look at five explanations, looking particularly as to whether they fit well with the literal meaning of the text.

 

The following is from the midrash Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer:

 

The tower had seven steps from the east and seven steps from the west. The bricks were hauled up from one side, the descent was on the other. If a man fell down and died, no attention was paid to him, but if one brick fell down, they would sit and weep and say: Woe betide us, when will another one be hauled up in its place?"5

 

This midrash is a paradigm for all the -isms of history — Hellenism, communism, Nazism, and all global movements such as radical Islam for which progress is more important than the value of the individual. Judaism would never agree with this value judgment.

There can be no doubt that this is a meaningful midrash. Nevertheless, it is exegesis, and it is questionable whether it reflects the intent of the Bible.

The next quotation is from the authoritative Biblical commentator Rashi, who comments on the phrase in the story "and single speech (in Hebrew: udvarim achadim) (ibid 11:1):

 

They came up with one plan of action, and they said: [God] does not have the right to select for Himself alone the higher realms. We will go up to the firmament and wage war with Him.6

 

The notion that the people united in order to challenge God can be found in a number of midrashim. God inhabits the heavens, and there is perhaps a certain logic that a tower would be needed to reach up and confront Him.

However, this explanation fits poorly into the way of thinking of ancient Babylon. They were not monotheists but pagans. While building their tower, the Babylonians had no intention of fighting with their gods. Their sole intent was to unite with them.

A third explanation comes from the modern scholar Rabbi Jonathan Sacks who suggests that the error of that generation was their attempt to eliminate the boundary between heaven and earth:

The most fundamental boundary is the one created first: the differentiation between heaven and earth. Never before or since, except among religions or cultures influenced by Judaism, has God been conceived in so radically transcendent a way. God is not to be identified with anything on earth. The heavens are the heavens of the Lord says the Psalmist, but the earth He has given to man (Psalm 115;16). This ontological divide is fundamental. God is God; humanity is humanity. There can be no blurring of the boundaries."7

 

Nevertheless, one can argue with Sacks’ explanation. The Tower of Babel is not a story about Elokim, who represents the transcendent aspect of God, but about YKVK, the name which describes the immanent nature of G-d. YKVK recognizes no boundaries in his interactions with man. Later in the Torah, YKVK will speak to Moses from a burning bush. YKVK will also reside among the Jewish people in the Holy of Holies in His Sanctuary. The people’s attempt to reach towards divinity by building into the heavens was a theological error, a farcical one at that, but whether it is was an error deserving of dispersion is debatable.

 

A fourth explanation comes from the Talmud:

 

It was taught in a Baraisa: R Nassan says: All of [the members of the generation of the Dispersion] intended to build the tower for the purposes of idolatry. It is written here: Come let us build ourselves a city and let us make a name (shem) for ourselves (Genesis 11:4) and there it is written: The name (shem) of strange gods you shall not mention (Exodus 23:13). Just as over there the word shem refers to idolatry, so here in the story of the Generation of Dispersion the word shem also refers to idolatry."8

 

There is nothing to argue about with this explanation. The inhabitants of Babylon were idolators, as were all other nations. However, whether the Babylonians warranted consequences for their idolatry more than anyone else in the ancient world is another matter.

I would like to suggest another explanation that, as distinct from these other explanations, fits well into the text. The error of this generation was their seeking to make a name or reputation for themselves.

 

They said: "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves" (Genesis 11:4).

 

There is biting sarcasm in this verse. The ziggurat was allegedly built for the glory of their god Marduk. The reality was otherwise. This ziggurat was built for the glory of the rulers of Babylon. Later in history, Nebuchadnezzar will admit as much: "The fortifications of Esagila and Babylon I strengthened, and made an everlasting name for my reign."

 

However, any communal endeavor for the sake of society that promotes the shem or name or reputation of human beings runs counter to God’s plan for humanity and will eventually flounder.

As R’ Hirsch points out commenting on the phrase “let us make a name for ourselves:”

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If they place themselves there, instead of a means, as an end, then the whole moral future of mankind goes to ruin, then what is almost prophetically said here occurs: mankind perceives its own powers, and, the more originality used the more arrogantly comes to believe that the community as such can dispense with God and His laws of morality.9

Such an attitude also easily leads to violence. At first glance, there is no suggestion of violence in this story. To the contrary, everyone in the city was working peacefully together. As Leon Kass puts it so nicely:

 

On first encountering the story, prior to careful reflection, any reader is likely to find the tale troubling. For the building of the city and tower appear at first glance to be an innocent project, even a worthy one. It expresses powerful human impulses, to establish security, permanence, independence, even self-sufficiency. And it is accomplished entirely by rational and peaceful means; forethought and planning. . . . and cooperative social arrangements made possible by common speech and uniform thoughts. Babel, the universal city, is the fulfillment of a recurrent human dream, a dream of humankind united, living together in peace and freedom."10

 

However, from the Sumerian period onwards neighboring city states were often in conflict, and from the time of Sargon power conflicts extended to neighboring states. The Bible could well be describing the beginning of these military conflicts when discussing Nimrod in the previous chapter 10. This may even be referring to Sargon of Akkad who was a violent usurper to the throne of southern Mesopotamia:

 

And Cush begot Nimrod. He was the first to be a mighty man on earth. He was a mighty hunter before YKVK; therefore, it is said: “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before YKVK.” The beginning of his kingdom was Bavel, and Erech, and Akkad, and Calneh in the land of Shinar. From that land he went forth to Ashur and built Nineveh, Rehovoth-ir, Calah and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah, that is the great city (ibid 10:9-11).

 

It seems likely that the Nimrod of the Bible “went forth” while engaged in empire building. Nimrod’s hunting was more than game trapping. This was a vicious king from the genealogy of Ham who created a mighty empire on the basis of conquest.

The era of Sargon of Akkad initiated a new phase in Mesopotamian history. Sargon unified the city states of southern Mesopotamia by force and then went on to conquer much of the Near East. From this time onwards, Mesopotamian history becomes one of power politics, violence and empire building.

 

This violence was encouraged by the fact that conflict was built into the very structure of the Mesopotamian cosmos by their mythology which describes conflict between the gods in their battle for power (see Enumah Elish in “Mythology and the First Creation Account”). Violence was not part of the mythology of the Sumerian civilization, but by the time of the Akkadian period it had definitely become so.

Promoting the name of God

 

The only societal system that will endure is one that acknowledges the shem (name) or attributes of God. Accordingly, the nations of the world had to be diffused so as to permit a new system, the system of Abraham, to enter and take hold in the world. This is why the promotion of God’s shem or attributes is such an important concept in the Torah.

 

In fact, the very next paragraph after the Generation of the Dispersion passage begins “These are the descendants of Shem. . . (ibid 11:10)

 

One of Noah’s three sons is called Shem, meaning a name. He and his descendants will possess a unique perception of YKVK, the God of relationships.

 

Says Noah earlier in a prophetic vein:

 

Blessed is YKVK, the God of Shem. . . . (ibid 9:26).

 

Disseminating knowledge of YKVK will be actualized by one of the descendent of Shem, Abraham. In fact, this passage about Bavel can almost be considered to be an introduction to the stories about Abraham. Hence, as soon as Abraham reached the city of Shechem in Canaan on arriving from Mesopotamia:

So, he built an altar there to YKVK Who had appeared to him. From there he relocated to the mountain east of Bethel and pitched his tent with Bethel on the west and Ai on the east, and he built there an altar to YKVK and he called out in the Name (vayikra beshem) of YKVK (ibid 12:7-8).

 

Abraham was chosen by God to migrate to Canaan because he already perceived his mission to be the dissemination of knowledge of God. His preaching would be done not within a city but on its outskirts. In the context of a sacrifice, he would call out in God’s name, vayikra beshem YKVK. The closest modern analogy would be a revivalist meeting. During this meeting, Abraham would preach about the concept of one God.11 He may also have taught that one’s personal life and also that of society should be built on the basis of righteousness and justice.12

 

Because of a famine in the land, Abraham found it necessary to go down to Egypt. However, as soon as he returned to Canaan, he resumed his preaching:

 

He proceeded on his journeys from the south to Bethel, to the place where his tent had been at first between Bethel and Ai, to the site of the altar which he had made there at first; and there Abram called out in the name of YKVK (vayikro shom Avrom beshem YKVK) (ibid 13:3).

 

Something very interesting has been noted by Cassuto. In the nine verses of this passage, the Hebrew letter ש is found many times — twenty-seven times to be precise.13 This letter can be pronounced shin or sin depending on where the top dot is placed. The Hebrew word shem שם starts with a shin. It is as if the whole of this passage is shouting out shem shem shem!

א וַיְהִי כָל-הָאָרֶץ שָֹפָה אֶחָת וּדְבָרִים אֲחָדִים: ב וַיְהִי בְּנָסְעָם מִקֶּדֶם וַיִּמְצְאוּ בִקְעָה בְּאֶרֶץ שִׁנְעָר וַיֵּשְׁבוּ שָׁם: ג וַיֹּאמְרוּ אִישׁ אֶל-רֵעֵהוּ הָבָה נִלְבְּנָה לְבֵנִים וְנִשְֹרְפָה לִשְֹרֵפָה וַתְּהִי לָהֶם הַלְּבֵנָה לְאָבֶן וְהַחֵמָר הָיָה לָהֶם לַחֹמֶר: ד וַיֹּאמְרוּ הָבָה | נִבְנֶה-לָּנוּ עִיר וּמִגְדָּל וְרֹאשׁוֹ בַשָּׁמַיִם וְנַעֲשֶֹה-לָּנוּ שֵׁם פֶּן-נָפוּץ עַל-פְּנֵי כָל-הָאָרֶץ: ה וַיֵּרֶד הֹ׳ לִרְאֹת אֶת-הָעִיר וְאֶת-הַמִּגְדָּל אֲשֶׁר בָּנוּ בְּנֵי הָאָדָם: ו וַיֹּאמֶר הֹ׳ הֵן עַם אֶחָד וְשָֹפָה אַחַת לְכֻלָּם וְזֶה הַחִלָּם לַעֲשֹוֹת וְעַתָּה לֹא-יִבָּצֵר מֵהֶם כֹּל אֲשֶׁר יָזְמוּ לַעֲשֹוֹת: ז הָבָה נֵרְדָה וְנָבְלָה שָׁם שְֹפָתָם אֲשֶׁר לֹא יִשְׁמְעוּ אִישׁ שְֹפַת רֵעֵהוּ: ח וַיָּפֶץ הֹ׳ אֹתָם מִשָּׁם עַל-פְּנֵי כָל-הָאָרֶץ וַיַּחְדְּלוּ לִבְנֹת הָעִיר: ט עַל-כֵּן קָרָא שְׁמָהּ בָּבֶל כִּי-שָׁם בָּלַל ה׳ שְֹפַת כָּל-הָאָרֶץ וּמִשָּׁם הֱפִיצָם ְהֹ׳ עַל-פְּנֵי כָּל-הָאָרֶץ

 

It should also be mentioned that since a major focus of this passage about the Generation of the Dispersion is related to the word shem or name, and Abraham’s calling out in the name of God was always associated with the name of God YKVK, so too this passage uses only the name YKVK.

For Abraham’s message to spread across the globe, there has to be a place in the world from which the Jewish nation can spread this message. Cassutto explains:

The planned pattern of the dispersal of humanity serves here as proof that the settlement of mankind in the world did not occur haphazardly, according to the chance circumstances of greater or less fecundity in one or another family, but took place according to a preconceived Divine plan, the implementation of which proceeded without humanity’s being aware of it."13

 

Shortly before his death, Moses wrote a song that included the following verse:

 

When the Supreme One gave the nations their inheritance, when He separated the children of man, He set the borders of the peoples according to the number of the Children of Israel (Deuteronomy 32:8).

 

We are told that the number of Jacob’s offspring who went down with him to Egypt was 70 (Genesis 46:27 and Deuteronomy 10:22). Hence, the conclusion must be that global mankind was also comprised of 70 nations.14 Moses is pointing out that just as these seventy nations had their own land, so too must the Children of Israel possess their own land.15

Number 70 has a specific meaning in the Torah. It represents completeness by virtue of differences. Hence, Moses appointed 70 elders to represent the twelve tribes, and the number of judges appointed to the Sanhedrin or Supreme Court was 70. The 70 elders were a perfect representative body of the twelve tribes. Hence, the 70 individuals from Jacob’s household possessed all the attributes necessary to form a nation. Similarly, the 70 nations of the world (which included the descendants of Shem) had all the characteristics needed to make up the diversity of global mankind. Each elder, each of Jacob’s offspring, and each nation was unique, but the sum total of these differences would be completeness.

 

Are there jokes in the Torah? There most definitely are, and the Tower of Babel story illustrates this. Nevertheless, the Tower of Babel story is more than just satire. It is a key part of a narrative history that leads from the creation of Adam and Eve to the mission of Abraham.

References
1.The Story of the Generation of Division (xi 1-9). Introduction. By U Cassuto in A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part Two. From Noah to Abraham, A Commentary on Genesis, C. The Story of the Generation of Division (xi 1-9). Introduction. p225, First English Edition, The Magnes Press, P.O.Box 7695, Jerusalem 91076, Israel and Babel. A Story of Heaven and Earth by Rabbi Jonathan Sacks n Covenant and Conversation. A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, Genesis: the Book of Beginnings, p49, Maggid Books and The Orthodox Union, First Edition 2009.
2. Sixth Paragraph. The Story of the Sixth Day by U Cassuto in A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part Two. From Noah to Abraham, A Commentary on Genesis, p52, First English Edition, The Magnes Press, P.O. Box 7695, Jerusalem91076, Israel.
3. First Paragraph. The Theophany on Mount Horeb by Umberto Cassuto in A Commentary on the Book of Exodus, p30, Varda Books, Skokie, Il, USA 2005.
4. The Epic of Creation VI by Stephanie Dalley in Myths fromMesopotamia. Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh and Others, p260, Oxford University Press, Revised edition 2000
5. Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer, 24.
6. Rashi’s Commentary to the Torah on Genesis 11:1.
7. Babel. A Story of Heaven and Earth by Rabbi Jonathan Sacks n Covenant and Conversation. A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, Genesis: the Book of Beginnings, p49, Maggid Books and The Orthodox Union, First Edition 2009.
8. TB Sanhedrin 109a.
9. R’ Samson Raphael Hirsch in his commentary to Genesis 11:4
10. Babel: The Failures of Civilization by Leon Kass in The Beginning of Wisdom. Reading Genesis, p197, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.
11. Ibn Ezra and Radak suggest that the phrase vayikra beshem YKVK (he called upon the name of YKVK) means he proclaimed God’s unity and summoned all men to worship him. Nachmanides explains that he publicly proclaimed God’s name before the altar, teaching people to know and recognize God. He quotes the Midrash Rabba (39:16) that he caused the Name of of the Holy One blessed be He to be uttered in the mouth of all people (in other words calling out means he encouraged others to call out). Thus, he instructed them regarding the existence and greatness of God. Another midrashic interpretation is that he began making converts.
12. See Genesis 18:19 where it is mentioned that Abraham will teach his children and his household about righteousness and justice. The presumption has to be that this was already part and parcel of his teaching to everyone.
13. The Story of the Generation of Division (xi 1-9). Introduction. By U Cassuto in A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, Part Two. From Noah to Abraham, A Commentary on Genesis, C. The Story of the Generation of Division (xi 1-9). Introduction. p225, First English Edition, The Magnes Press, P.O.Box 7695, Jerusalem 91076, Israel
14. If one examines chapter 10 of Genesis that includes the 70 nations, one finds there are not 70 names listed but 74. Nevertheless, included in these names are Shem, Ham and Yaphet, the three sons of Noah, who survived the Flood and who are the progenitors of these 70 nations. Also included is Nimrod, who is presumed to be a person and not a nation. Subtract these 4 names and there are indeed 70 nations listed in this chapter.
15. See the commentary of Nachmanides to Genesis 1:15 “Canaan begot Zidon his firstborn.”